Identifying Boy Victims of Human Trafficking in Costa Rica
A Learning Brief for Practitioners
May 2025
I. Framing the Issue: The Invisible Victims
Human trafficking affects children of all genders, but boys remain disproportionately under-identified and underserved within protection systems worldwide. This pattern is particularly pronounced in Costa Rica, where official statistics reveal a stark disparity: in 2023, only one male victim was identified among 36 total victims recorded by authorities.
This stark under-identification does not reflect the reality of exploitation. Research suggests boys are trafficked at rates comparable to girls globally, with regional studies indicating similar patterns in Central America. The gap between estimated prevalence and official identification represents not just a statistical anomaly but a critical protection failure with real consequences for vulnerable children.
Forms of Exploitation Affecting Boys in Costa Rica
Boys in Costa Rica face multiple forms of exploitation, each with distinct characteristics and challenges for identification:
- Labor trafficking: Boys are exploited in fishing (particularly in Puntarenas), agriculture (coffee plantations, cattle ranching), construction, and domestic work. Labor trafficking often appears as "legitimate employment" making identification particularly challenging.
- Sexual exploitation: Boys are trafficked for sexual purposes, particularly in tourist destinations like Guanacaste and urban centers. This exploitation is often more hidden than that of girls due to additional stigma.
- Forced criminality: Some boys are coerced into illegal activities including drug trafficking, theft, and other crimes, resulting in their misidentification as offenders rather than victims.
The Double Invisibility Problem
Boys who are trafficking victims face a "double invisibility" crisis:
- Cultural factors (machismo) that prevent self-identification and help-seeking
- Institutional biases that overlook or misclassify male victims
These factors create a cycle where under-identification perpetuates itself: without identified victims, awareness remains low; without awareness, identification remains rare.
The Costa Rican Context: High-Risk Areas and Sectors
Certain geographic areas within Costa Rica present heightened risks for the trafficking of boys:
- Coastal provinces (Guanacaste, Puntarenas, Limón) where tourism, fishing, and agriculture create environments conducive to exploitation
- Border regions with Nicaragua and Panama, where migration vulnerabilities increase risks
- Urban centers like San José, where boys may be exploited in multiple sectors
Case Example: The Hidden Reality
In a 2023 assessment of the fishing industry in Puntarenas, researchers estimated that approximately 1 in 5 workers had experienced conditions consistent with trafficking indicators. Among these were numerous adolescent boys. Despite this prevalence, official records identified only a single case that year, illustrating the profound gap between reality and recognition.
Why Identification Matters: Consequences of Overlooking Boys
The failure to identify boy victims creates multi-layered consequences:
For The Boys
- Prolonged exploitation without intervention
- Lack of access to recovery services
- Potential criminalization
- Cumulative trauma
- Loss of educational opportunities
For The System
- Incomplete understanding of trafficking patterns
- Ineffective prevention strategies
- Resource misallocation
- Perpetuation of gender stereotypes
- Continued impunity for certain forms of trafficking
II. Understanding the Barriers: Why Boys Remain Hidden
Cultural Lens: Machismo and Male Victimhood
Costa Rican society, like many in Latin America, is influenced by concepts of "machismo" or hegemonic masculinity that create powerful barriers to identifying boys as trafficking victims.
Machismo culture emphasizes male strength, stoicism, self-reliance, and emotional restraint. Boys are socialized to view vulnerability, dependence, and help-seeking as signs of weakness or failure. This directly conflicts with acknowledging victimhood, which implicitly acknowledges vulnerability and loss of control.
Practitioner Voice
"When I ask boys about their experiences, the first response is almost always denial. They'll say 'I'm fine,' 'I can handle it,' or even 'I chose this.' Breaking through requires showing them that recognizing harm isn't weakness—it's the first step toward regaining control."
- Social worker, San José youth center
Family and community responses to exploitation often reinforce these barriers:
- Families may expect boys to endure difficult labor conditions as part of "becoming a man"
- Communities may stigmatize those who report exploitation as weak or unable to handle responsibility
- Boys exploited in sex trafficking face additional layers of stigma related to sexuality
- Exploitation in "masculine" sectors (fishing, construction) may be normalized or minimized
Reading the Signs: Trafficking Indicators in Boys
Trafficking indicators can manifest differently in boys compared to girls, and these differences often contribute to missed identification opportunities.
| Domain | Indicators in Boys | Common Misinterpretation |
|---|---|---|
| Physical |
|
Accidents, sports injuries, "roughhousing," normal fatigue from labor |
| Behavioral |
|
Conduct disorder, delinquency, typical adolescent rebellion, "bad attitude" |
| School-related |
|
Truancy, lack of interest in education, learning disability, normal adolescent social changes |
| Social |
|
Illegal income sources, gang involvement, normal mentorship, choice to leave home |
Key Insight: Externalizing vs. Internalizing
A critical gender difference in trafficking responses: Boys often externalize trauma through behaviors like aggression, defiance, or substance use, while girls may be more likely to internalize trauma through depression, anxiety, or self-harm. This externalization often leads to boys being viewed through a disciplinary lens rather than a victim-centered one.
Institutional and Systemic Barriers
Beyond cultural factors and differential indicators, Costa Rica's institutional structures create additional challenges for identifying boy victims:
The "Perfect Victim" Stereotype
Anti-trafficking efforts globally and in Costa Rica have historically focused on female victims of sexual exploitation. This has created a pervasive "perfect victim" stereotype that influences how professionals conceptualize and identify trafficking. Boys often don't fit this profile, particularly when exploited in labor contexts or when exhibiting externalized behavioral responses.
Costa Rica's Multi-Tiered Referral System
The Costa Rican system for identifying and responding to child trafficking operates through multiple layers:
- Initial identification: By community members, teachers, healthcare workers, police
- PANI local level: Initial assessment and case opening
- PANI regional level: Case evaluation and referral
- PANI central level: Formal trafficking determination
- Formal identification body: Seven institutions based in San José
This complex system creates numerous points where cases involving boys may be filtered out or reclassified as something other than trafficking, particularly when labor exploitation is involved.
Critical Challenge: Mandatory Reporting Requirements
Costa Rican law requires mandatory reporting of suspected trafficking cases to both PANI and law enforcement. This creates tension between protection and prosecution interests, potentially deterring disclosure when boys fear legal consequences for activities they were forced to perform (e.g., drug trafficking, illegal fishing).
III. Practical Solutions: Building Better Identification Practices
Addressing the under-identification of boy victims requires practical, field-tested approaches that directly counter the barriers described above.
Preliminary Identification Techniques
Effective identification begins with creating environments and approaches that facilitate recognition and disclosure:
- Create indirect disclosure opportunities: Rather than direct questioning about trafficking, create natural conversation opportunities through activities, informal interactions, or discussions about related topics.
- Establish consistent, non-judgmental presence: Building trust requires reliability and consistency over time, particularly for boys who may test boundaries before disclosure.
- Use setting-specific observation: Different contexts reveal different indicators; specialized observation frameworks for schools, communities, and healthcare settings can improve detection.
TOOL: Initial Observation Checklist
School Setting Indicators
Community Setting Indicators
Note: This checklist should be used as a guide, not a diagnostic tool. The presence of individual indicators does not necessarily indicate trafficking, while their absence does not rule it out. Professional judgment remains essential.
Engaging Boys Effectively: Communication Approaches
Once potential indicators are observed, effective engagement requires approaches that overcome cultural and psychological barriers:
- Create psychological safety: Establish environments where vulnerability is acceptable and disclosure won't lead to judgment
- Use language that preserves dignity: Frame conversations in ways that emphasize strength and agency rather than weakness or victimhood
- Understand defensive reactions: Anger, denial, and minimization are common initial responses rooted in machismo expectations
- Build rapport through respect: Demonstrate genuine respect for the boy's experiences, perspectives, and boundaries
TOOL: Conversation Guide
Effective Approaches
| Instead of... | Try... |
|---|---|
| "Are you a victim of trafficking?" | "Many young people in similar situations have found themselves working in difficult conditions. Has anything like that happened to you?" |
| "Why didn't you run away or tell someone?" | "It's impressive that you've managed to survive such difficult circumstances. What strategies helped you get through?" |
| "You need to cooperate with us to get help." | "You deserve support regardless of what you decide to share. I'm here to listen whenever you're ready." |
| "What these people did to you was terrible." | "No one has the right to control another person or make them work under those kinds of conditions." |
When You Encounter Defensiveness
- Acknowledge without challenging: "I understand this might feel uncomfortable to discuss."
- Normalize the experience: "Many young men in similar situations have felt the same way."
- Offer control: "You decide what and when you want to share."
- Focus on concrete needs: "What would be most helpful for you right now?"
Practitioner Voice
"I've found that engaging boys in activities—sports, art, even just walking—creates natural conversation opportunities. When they're focused on something else, they often feel less 'put on the spot' and more able to share difficult experiences. One boy shared his entire trafficking story while we were fixing a bicycle together—something he might never have disclosed in a formal interview setting."
- Youth outreach worker, Limón province
From Suspicion to Formal Identification
Moving from initial suspicion to formal identification requires navigating Costa Rica's multi-tiered system effectively:
Working with PANI
- Establish relationships with local PANI representatives before cases arise
- Understand documentation requirements and prepare comprehensive case files
- Frame cases using language that aligns with formal trafficking definitions
- Provide ongoing support to boys throughout the lengthy identification process
TOOL: Documentation Template
Effective documentation significantly improves the likelihood of formal identification. This template provides a structure for documenting observations and disclosures in a way that supports the formal identification process.
Case Documentation Framework
- Basic Information
- Child's name, approximate age, nationality
- Location and context of initial contact
- Current safety status and immediate needs
- Observed Indicators
- Physical indicators (detailed descriptions, not interpretations)
- Behavioral indicators (specific examples, patterns)
- Social circumstances (living conditions, relationships)
- Disclosure Information
- Direct quotes whenever possible (using the child's exact words)
- Context of disclosure (what prompted it, who was present)
- Consistency or inconsistency in accounts over time
- Trafficking Indicators Assessment
- Act: Evidence of recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt
- Means: Evidence of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power (Note: Not required to establish in cases involving minors)
- Purpose: Evidence of exploitation (labor, sexual, criminal activity)
- Actions Taken
- Referrals made (date, time, person contacted)
- Services provided or offered
- Safety planning implemented
Remember to maintain confidentiality and secure storage of all documentation. Obtain consent whenever possible, and explain to the child how information will be used.
Regional Adaptation Strategies
Identification strategies must be adapted to the specific regional contexts where boys are most vulnerable:
Coastal Regions (Puntarenas, Guanacaste, Limón)
- Focus on fishing communities: Build relationships with boat captains, dock workers
- Monitor tourist areas: Train hospitality workers in identification
- Establish presence at landing sites: Regular monitoring at times when boats return
Agricultural Areas
- Seasonal awareness: Intensify monitoring during harvest periods
- Engage with agricultural cooperatives: Build ethical employment awareness
- Mobile outreach: Bring services to remote plantation areas
Case Example: Effective Regional Adaptation in Puntarenas
In 2023, a local NGO developed a "fisherman's health clinic" providing basic healthcare at docks when fishing boats returned. The service was ostensibly for all workers but was designed to create opportunities to observe and engage with adolescents working on boats. Over six months, the initiative identified five boy victims of trafficking who might otherwise have remained invisible, using an approach specifically tailored to the local fishing industry context.
Creating Supportive Environments
Beyond individual identification strategies, creating environments that facilitate disclosure is essential:
- School-based initiatives: Trafficking awareness that explicitly includes boys, safe disclosure protocols
- Community awareness: Campaigns that challenge machismo norms and reduce stigma for male victims
- Boy-friendly spaces: Physical environments where boys feel comfortable and safe to engage with support services
- Peer support: Carefully structured peer mentoring that creates additional disclosure pathways
TOOL: Environment Assessment Checklist
Use this checklist to evaluate whether your current service environment supports or hinders identification of boy victims.
IV. Putting It All Together
Key Action Points for Practitioners
Effective identification of boy victims requires coordinated action across multiple professional groups:
For Educators
- Implement regular, structured observation focusing on attendance patterns and behavioral changes
- Create private, non-stigmatizing opportunities for disclosure
- Build trusting relationships that can withstand initial defensive reactions
- Document observations thoroughly using the provided template
For Social Workers
- Develop specific outreach strategies for high-risk areas identified in this brief
- Adapt engagement approaches based on exploitation type and regional context
- Create boy-friendly spaces within existing service environments
- Build relationships with local PANI representatives to facilitate referrals
Connecting Identification to Support Services
Identification is only the first step; connecting boys to appropriate services is equally critical:
- Preview available services: Be prepared to explain what support is available when disclosure occurs
- Manage expectations: Be honest about limitations and potential challenges in the service system
- Maintain engagement: Continue support during the transition from identification to services
- Build resilience: Foster skills and connections that support recovery regardless of formal service availability
A Note on Continuing Support
The identification process may be lengthy, and formal services may be limited. During this period, maintaining consistent support is crucial. Even without specialized trafficking services, practitioners can provide valuable support through regular check-ins, basic needs assistance, and maintaining a caring, non-judgmental presence.
Sustainable Identification Practices
To maintain momentum in identifying boy victims, practitioners should:
- Integrate into routine practice: Make observation and documentation of potential trafficking indicators part of standard procedures
- Support each other: Create professional support systems to address vicarious trauma and prevent burnout
- Share successes: Document and share identification successes to build collective knowledge
- Advocate for change: Use documented cases to advocate for improved services and identification systems
QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE: Key Indicators and Response Steps
Priority Indicators for Boys
- Excessive work hours interfering with education or normal activities
- Industry-specific injuries (rope burns, chemical exposure, untreated wounds)
- Externalized trauma responses (aggression, substance use, risk-taking)
- Coached/scripted explanations about work or living situation
- Association with controlling adults or older youth
Immediate Response Steps
- Ensure immediate safety (address any urgent physical or medical needs)
- Create a safe engagement environment (private, non-judgmental, trauma-informed)
- Use culturally appropriate, dignity-preserving language
- Document observations thoroughly using the provided template
- Contact local PANI representative while maintaining relationship with the boy
